A Brief Historiography of US Hegemony in the Cuban sugar industry

 

The premise for the US takeover of Cuba’s sugar business begins in the late 1890’s at the close of the war for Cuban independence from Spain. Its product, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in December of 1889 by Spain, transferring the jurisdiction of Cuba to the USA. This is where the door to Cuba’s untapped agribusiness potential was opened, eventually leading to the US’s exploitation and moulding of the sugar industry to become Cuba’s economic foundation.

Cuba’s climate and topography are ideal for the production of sugarcane, making it an ideal location for mass crop production. The US capitalized on Cuba’s war-torn and vulnerable state to buy up cheap land and force people from their properties to install sugar monocropping and mills. The spread of these sugar plantations, or latifundios, destroyed peasant and farmer communities across rural Cuba. Since the technology used by existing small farmers in Cuba was unfit to meet the needs of large scale monoculture production, farmers were either bought out to produce sugar, or were pushed out to more mountainous, less fertile land. This led them to shift their crop production to varities able to handle the steeper land such as coffee and cocoa, causing erosion to these mountainous areas over time. The amount of small independent farmers was halved. Those who stayed on the sugar land were tenants, or colonos, working for corporations. These farmers had to rely on the mills for their livelihood in an unpredictable, single-crop dependent economy.

The need for physical laborers, or zafras,  dramatically increased with the implementation of these farms. A surge of non-white immigrants from the Caribbean arrived, sparking the Cuban white elite to rally for a ban on non-white immigration. This resulted in 1910’s Military Order No. 155, granting a $5 stipend for every white immigrant from Panama. Eventually, the demand for labor was so intense that the resistance on non-whites in Cuba was overtaken by need. This resulted in changes in Cuba’s racial demographics that last today.

Financially, export oriented monoculture farming is risky business, especially for the farmers who produce the crop. Cuba’s economy became solely dependant on foreign capital from sugar exports and the global sugar price. The US was able to majorly profit from their sugar hegemony due to control over “Favorable Trade Agreements”.  These arrangements included policies such as 1903’s Reciprocity Treaty, lowering tariffs on goods exchanged exclusively between the US and Cuba (Specifically Cuban exports to the US). This resulted in little financial gain for Cuban growers, and was created for US financial gain.

The problems that the US introduced to Cubans through their domination of the sugar industry set a stage palatable for the revolutionary movement led by figures such as Fidel Castro. The frustration Cuban farmers and citizens felt aligned well with Castro’s anti US sentiments. The timeline of the US takeover of Cuban affairs is among abundant examples of the frontier expansion mentality taken by the states. The ideas that Cubans were unable to control their own affairs without US intervention, and that its land wouldn’t be exercised to its full potential without the hand of the states are reminiscent of the motivations behind many of their conquerings and overtakings across Latin America. Although the Cuban sugar boom brought in large amounts of capital and modernization to Cuba, the means required to achieve this status resulted in the destruction of Cuban infrastructure, land, and the traditional farming class. The consequences from riskiest parts of this means of profit fell onto Cubans, and the benefits fell mainly on the US. Depending on which national perspective is taken, these outcomes can be seen as necessary evils for a developing nation’s advancement, or the evil truth of imperialistic gain. Regardless, the Cuban sugar boom was a monumentally transformational time in Cuban history, modernization, and economic development. Its effects, negative and positive, are still felt  today.

 

McCollum, Justin. (2011). “A Brief Historiography of US Hegemony in the Cuban Sugar Industry,” The Forum: Journal of History: Vol 3. Iss 1, Article 8. Retrieved from

http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=forum

WEEK 11: The Terror

In the past century, development all over the world has progressed so rapidly it’s hard to keep track of the eras being experienced in other nations. While the 90s in the Western World was modernized and relatively safe, parts of Latin America were still frequently experiencing barbaric levels of terror and violence. I imagine it must have been surreal to live in something equating to a war zone when one of your closest national neighbors is experiencing a different chapter of their own history.

The case of Peru is yet another example of the pursuit of democracy gone wrong. New democracy after independence is fragile and easily dismantled by a well-timed military dictatorship or other often violent method of takeover. I thought that this quote from Fujimori’s 1992 Declaration of the Autogolpe” is indicative of how governmental power was able to be abused ; “justice is just a commodity sold to the highest bidder”. When this is the reality of who exercises power, disregard for civilian lives and well being and can run rampant, as was seen in these regions, Government institutions can “rot” – and encourage corruption and violence as means of gaining profit and power.

The words of the sister of the Cantuna victim were heart wrenching. Having to fear something like a military death squad in your nation is a level of fear nobody deserves to live through, let alone facing someone responsible for the senseless killing of a family member. Power dynamics in this time affected so many lives, and it was what she calls “false power” only acquired by utilizing violence and fear. She believes true power stems from an ability to create, not destroy. This parallels the repeated theme of Latin America’s quest for democracy and peace, and often reverting  back to brutality and violence. This helps me to understand the complicated relationship Latin Americans have with their country, historically and in their daily lives.

WEEK 10: POWER TO THE PEOPLE

The part that I found the most interesting in this chapter was the analysis of how recent technological advancement changed the social and political climate. The concept of a “cognitive capacity” of an entire audience is really fascinating and don’t think about often. Before radio and recorded sound existed, general knowledge about the world offered limited access; only the wealthiest elite were literate, and could read the literature available. Once recorded speaking and music could be distributed to mass audiences across hundreds of miles quickly and clearly. This is a drastic development in technology that reminds me of recent technological advancements such as live streaming. Both of these advancements rapidly changed the way information was given and received, and the amount of people it could reach at once.

For the first time, getting a message across to a large audience required more than just writing it down. Listeners heard the tone, cadence, and enthusiasm of speaker’s voices, and when delivering a social or political message, eloquence and vocal patterns could determine your success. In Eva’s case, this was a key to the rise of Péronism.  “Eva had an opportunity to turn her popularity into something more substantial.
Within weeks of meeting Péron, she was actively using her status as a radio star to advocate for Péronism” Her status among audiences turned out to be a useful tool for she and Péron to spread their messages and achieve the devoted following they did.

This reminds me of the importance of how news is delivered to us today. Reporters, journalists, and other deliverers of information not only have to pay attention to how they sound, but also how they look due to the prevalence of video as a media format. Technological advancements such as the radio in the 1940s and the complex video and streaming today change more than meets the eye about the way society functions.

Week 9

As a student of agricultural science, I found the topic of banana cultivation and trade very interesting, and saw that it echoed a lot of the other things I’ve learned about agriculture and international trade.

There’s a pattern that tends to unfold when smaller and somewhat politically/economically weak nations are targeted for use of an agricultural resource. An example I can think of that is similar to the banana issue is that of quinoa in Bolivia. A powerful country (U.S.) develops a liking / desire for a agricultural commodity (bananas, quinoa, coffee etc) and inserts itself into these systems to gain control over their production. In Bolivia’s case, quinoa’s rise to one of the more popular grains consumed in the U.S. brought high demand for quinoa from Bolivian farmers. Over time, the grain that had sustained local communities became too expensive for the locals themselves to consume, causing economic issues for farmers and the nation’s economy as a whole.

Another negative effect of global agricultural trade is soil degradation due to mono cropping. When a region-specific crop (such as bananas or quinoa) grows in demand, more and more land will become dedicated to producing mass quantities of this crop. Over time, the land where those crops have grown will become degraded of resources, over-tilled, and infertile. If a large change in global demand for that crop  occurs, it leaves vulnerable nations with large amounts of farmland that will remain un-usable for years and years.

I would be interested in learning more about the environmental effects the Banana Republic has left on the communities and earth that produced the bananas. I also wonder if there have been changes made in the cultivation/ growth process over time due to overuse of resources and monocropping.

Week 8: Signs of Crisis in a Gilded Age

(Apologies for the late post, my head is a whirlwind of midterms)

“By 1914 the foreign born represented two thirds of skilled and white-collar workers in the capital, and 8-0 percent of unskilled labor in the city”

“The foreign born could not vote and lacked political rights”

These sentences were back to back! Even though people from outside of the country kept the country itself running, they were denied basic rights or involvement in decisions about rules and regulations directly pertaining to them. If the government had control over labor laws, choices could be made negatively affecting the multitude of migrant workers, and they had no chance to have a say. To be an immigrant in such a Xenophobic Argentina in the early 1900s  was incredibly difficult, and although they were large in number and employment presence, the government had ultimate power to continue to oppress them, to the point of attacks against their strikes, leaving large amounts dead. For these immigrants in a time where the concept of “home country” can be blurry, their very drive to make a living and survive in decent conditions was squashed. In an age where technology and industry, trade, and other social changes were prevalent, I would think that productivity from any source would be valued + capitalized upon. It is unsurprising that the Argentinians feared foreign workers, but the extent they went to push back was intense.

 

In Dario’s “To Roosevelt”, my favorite line is “The United States is grand and powerful. Whenever it trembles, a profound shudder runs down the enormous backbone of the Andes. If it shouts, the sound is like the roar of a lion. ” where the US is personified as a living being. I thought that this was a clever and appropriate way to describe the any area in the Americas in the early 1900s. Nations were constantly shifting, breathing people in and out from elsewhere, and having waves of violence and tentative appearance of calm. I enjoyed Dario’s language and writing style, and think it fits the time well. I enjoy reading creative accounts of historical events such as short stories or poetry the most, because I feel that the emotion that people were feeling at the time comes through much stronger and more vivid, and can be more universally felt.

 

Week 7: The export boom as modernity

As Latin America began to catch up to many other nations in terms of modernity when they joined the network of global trade, a period of advancement and economic growth began. I found the amount of concrete data and details in this week’s topics entertaining to read and felt it documented the course of events well. Since this was a time that many trades and purchases were happening on the national level, there is a more fleshed out view to things than documents further in the past, when there was less to record and have written down in one place.

I found it fascinating that when Latin America’s cheaply produced resources gained popularity on a global trade scale, the ways that society operated and that people were governed transformed entirely. The development of railroads allowed for people and goods to be transported further than ever before, and changed the ways that the government was able to interfere in local affairs. Telegraphs, cameras, and other revolutionary technological advancements caused for a societal change that is difficult to fathom when living so far from the time when technologies that are now common were brand new. I found myself drawing a comparison to the way smartphone and internet technology has led to a complete reformation of societal and social rules to the technological advances of this time in Latin America. People were able to communicate with and travel faster to other regions, expanding the worldview of people with access to these technologies.

When reading about the impacts of photography on racial stereotypes and gender roles, I was reminded of the Casta paintings and their drive to categorize and define the people of their respective nations. The struggle and desire to self represent in Latin America echoes throughout its history.

Although this time was progressive and exciting in terms of the eventual capitalist productivity of the global trade network,  Latin Americans didn’t always experience benefits from these changes. For the sake of productivity and scientific organization, existing cultures were stamped out, and some damaging processes were brought in. I found it especially interesting that a result of this, monocropping became common in Latin American nations, when a majority of their trade capital came from a very small amount of crops. I am studying sustainable agriculture and have learned a lot about soil quality and the time it takes for a piece of monocropped land to recover. It can be extremely economically damaging to do, and Latin America’s relationship with agricultural trade is a perfect example of the consequences of irresponsible farming.

Week 6: Citizenship and Rights in the New Republic

Reading “Brushstrokes” and “Women” back to back was a very clear window into opposing parties minds regarding women’s rights issues in Latin America at the time. I’ve always known that the two viewpoints existed, but having their views laid out so plainly in these documents painted a vivid picture of narratives regarding women’s rights in Latin America.

In Echenique’s piece, her words about liberating women are positive yet poetic. She is firm in her beliefs that women are destined for a successful future as men have been, but paints these views eloquently. I saw her as a very powerful figure in feminism at the time and respected and agreed with many of the ideas she discusses. These beliefs certainly weren’t met happily by many (such as Judith), and it was brave of Echenique to so clearly lay out her radical views on women’s liberation and equality of rights with men. ‘

I found the response to “Brushstrokes” to be both entertaining and saddening. Although I’ve always known that a woman’s role was so vastly oppressed at that time, the conversational tone in which  Judith wrote gave a juxtaposing effect to the misogynistic words written. I found it interesting that according to this piece, a woman’s purpose is to be “God’s poetry”, remaining weak and only praised for their physical beauty. I thought that Echenique’s piece defied this claim: she was able to express herself poetically and beautifully, while simultaneously throwing off the weights society bound women with to stay unambitious and in the home.

 

 

WEEK 5 CAUDILLOS: The Slaughterhouse

For this week’s blog, I wanted to focus on Esteban Echerría’s “The Slaughterhouse” because of its depiction of caudillos and metaphors for the ways Latin American people behaved after their nations became independent. I really loved the tone and writing style that Echerría employs, and found myself very enthralled with the story and its gruesome details. Among many quotes that stood out to me as exemplary of Echerría’s commentary on the state of affairs at the time, I felt this one described it best.                        “It was all a simulacrum in miniature of the barbaric ways in which individual social issues & rights are resolved in our country

The first quote blatantly draws the parallel from the story to real events. In the town where The Slaughterhouse takes place, a mix of types of people all engage in conflict over the limited supply of meat. This struck me as a way to describe the clashes and complex issues that existed between racial and societal groups over multiple issues after (and before) independence, using the meat as substance to represent the disparity. By using such a bloody and violent setting as a slaughterhouse fight over steer’s detritus, the intensity of what it felt like to live in post-colon Latin America was represented vividly. The people in the short story resolve their issues poorly and with great violence, referencing the difficulty of uniting and/or governing such a diverse mix of people and circumstances.

I look forward to discussing this story in class and dissecting it through both a literary and historical lens. What other details in The Slaughterhouse represent cultural references to post-colonial Latin America? Many of them were obvious, but I’m wondering if there’s anything I might have missed!

 

WEEK 4: Independence Narratives, Past and Present

From reading the 3 different pieces on Latin American independence and its rejection of Colonialism and Neoliberalism, I found recurring themes and sentiments from each author. Taking in Martí’s and Bolívar’s more historical pieces alongside Chavez’s modern speech allowed me to build bridges between past and current attitudes of Latin America’s people. Bolívar writes that Spain’s arrival to Latin America stimulated both positive and negative effects its people; inspiring both “community of interest, goodwill, and understanding”, while pushing the fact that there was “nothing we have not suffered at the hand of Spain.” Colonialism’s results and consequences were both considered by Bolívar, but the overall message of the Jamaica Letter is that Latin America needed to be united and strong in order to climb out from its history of abuse and accelerate to the “great prosperity” Bolívar believed it is destined for.

Josè Martí’s “Our America” stresses the notion that with a powerful enough idea & a passionate community behind it, the state of Latin America could be changed. The main problem Martí finds with Colonial rule of Latin America is that those who were in control did not know the desires and values held by those they controlled, writing that “the government must originate in the country.” In order for the governance of a nation/group of people to be effective for inhabitants, Martí states that the leader must be in touch with and familiar with those it is in control of, or it will result in hostility and ineffective rule. Echoing Bolívar, Martí emphasizes that with more unity, community, and togetherness, the problems with Latin American independence and coping with the consequences of Colonialism can be conquered.

Lastly, Chavèz’s speech parallels these thoughts in a modern context, even referencing the beliefs of Bolívar. The focus of Chavèz’s speech is the false hope Neoliberalism was enforced with, and the atrocities Latin America has suffered from its implication. He defines Neoliberalism as “a weapon of manipulation intended to force us to passiveness faced to an Economic world order that excludes our South countries and condemns them to the never ending role of producers of wealth and recipients of leftovers.” The information about the consequences Latin America has suffered from Neoliberalism  he reveals are staggering; the one that struck me the most is that every grazing cow in the E.U. receives the equivalent of $2.20 a day in subsidies, while more than 2.5 billion people in Latin America make less than $2.00 for a day of work. The broken promises of Neoliberalism reflect those made by Colonialism; the prospect of wealth and productivity resulting in the poverty, underdevelopment, and mistreatment of Latin American people.

I felt that each piece orbited around a similar center; that the people and social systems of Latin America have been routinely abused & manipulated for another power’s (be it Colonialism, Neoliberalism, etc) benefit, and that as a country, Latin America has the potential to rise to greatness if the forces oppressing it can be defeated through community togetherness, sacrifice, and ethical reasoning.

WEEK 3: THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE

The topics covered in this week’s lesson were exiting to me because of the examination of complicated gender and racial issues occurring in the Colonial world. Learning more details on the origins and details of Casta paintings makes clear some of the identity issues society was experiencing with a more diverse influx of people than it was used to. The amount of terms that existed for each racial mix- and mixes of mixes- was surprising to me, and I’m sure was considerably confusing at the time. The theme of struggling with identity for individuals and Latin America as a whole is cast over these paintings. As many of the paintings struggled to pin down a concrete description of roles and status, classifying an entire range of people, socially and through art, is no easy task. Learning where and why these paintings were displayed publicly was also intriguing. I wonder which ethnic group the paintings were the most and least popular with,and why?

My favorite part of this week’s assignment was the story of Catalina de Erauso. Every new paragraph of the piece was a crazy twist in plot, and all the while she wasn’t discovered by multiple family members! The dedication and risk it took to masquerade as a male soldier must have been overwhelming! I was surprised to see how many times she was injured, imprisoned, and other massive roadblocks that could easily have revealed her identity went past that she was able to get out undetected. I was the most shocked by the fact that when she did end up revealing herself, she wasn’t killed, or at least severely punished. I would expect that as a woman, she’d receive even harsher persecution for the years of “deceit” she was able to pull off, but the priority of those in higher power at the time was with the amount of service she did through it.